Safe in their homes? Reflections on defending towns and populations in northern Italy, AD 350-450

Italy in the Theodosian Age was a territory under threat. From usurpers through to Attila the textual sources signify how war and insecurity had reached the very heart of the Empire. A changed military, a changed capital, and changing enemies forced Italy to take on an increasingly militarised guise. This paper outlines and reflects on the physical and archaeological guides for all this in terms of frontiers and towns. Are the manifestations of change and insecurity general or specific? How secure did Italy look in the early fifth century AD? Were urban populations particularly affected? And what can we learn of their attitudes to the walls that girded them?