Advances in CCDs for X-ray imaging and spectroscopy.

A review of X-ray telescope focal-plane instrumentation is given. The architectures and operating principles of contemporary charge-coupled device (CCD) imagers are discussed. The fabrication of CCDs manufactured by EEV Ltd. is described. An overview of a slow-scan CCD evaluation system is given and the design, construction and operation of a microcomputer controlled programmable CCD readout sequencer is detailed. The technique of on-chip pixel binning is discussed. CCD noise sources and noise measurement techniques are reviewed and constructional details of a low noise analogue CCD signal processor are presented. A description of CCD data processing and image display software is given. The results of X-ray efficiency and energy resolution measurements on standard and specially developed deep-depletion CCDs are presented and accounted for. It is shown that deep-depletion devices can be fabricated to offer energy resolution equal with that of standard devices, together with superior detection efficiencies. Both device types are shown to give spectral resolution comparable with that obtained from other silicon-based detectors. Aspects of CCD operation in the space environment are considered and the relevance of this work to the development of CCD instrumentation for the European Space Agency's XMM satellite is assessed. In conclusion, the important characteristics of standard and deep-depletion CCDs are noted and areas thought to require further investigation are highlighted.